One of the central themes of the history of Niger is the interaction between the Tuareg (and also Tubu) nomads of the vast Saharan north and the sedentary agriculturalists of the south—that is, the interaction between opposed yet complementary ways of life and civilizations. Among the agriculturalists the main ethnic groups are the Songhai-Zarma in the west, the Hausa in the centre, and the Kanuri in the east. The Hausa have always been the most numerous. They constitute nearly half of the total population of Niger.
In the 14th century (possibly also earlier and later) the Tuareg-controlled kingdom of Takedda, west of the Aïr Massif, played a prominent role in long-distance trade, notably because of the importance of its copper mines. Copper was then used as a currency throughout western Africa. Archaeological evidence attests to the existence of communities of agriculturalists, probably Songhai-speaking, in this region, which is now desert, at the time of the kingdom of Takedda. Takedda was succeeded at an unknown date by the sultanate of Agadez.
For many centuries the southeastern third of present-day Niger constituted one of the most important provinces of the Kanuri empire of Bornu. The might of Bornu was based on the control of a number of salt-producing sites and of long-distance trade, notably along the string of oases between Lake Chad and the Fezzan via Kawar.
The great drought of about 1735–56—the prelude to the present dry cycle, which set in about 1880—had an adverse effect upon the natural environment. This may explain why both the communities of agriculturalists west of Aïr and the oases between Lake Chad and Kawar disappeared. It may perhaps also explain in part why the Tuareg were able to extend their control over a fair portion of the sedentary south.
At the time of the colonial conquest, the disparate regions the French molded into an entity known as Niger may be best described as an assemblage of peripheral borderlands. As borderlands, however, these regions had played a significant role as zones of refuge—the west after 1591 and the Moroccan conquest of the Songhai empire and the Hausa region much later, after the 1804 Fulani jihad in central Hausaland (i.e., present-day northern Nigeria). In both cases the refugees were people who had lost in the military conflicts, as well as the religious struggles, of their respective homelands. Thus both regions became bastions of “traditionalism” in the face of partly alien conquerors attempting to impose Islam.
HISTORY OF THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
The French conquest began in earnest in 1899. The local population determinedly resisted against the notoriously brutal expedition in 1899 led by the French captains Paul Voulet and Charles-Paul-Louis Chanoine (also known as Julien Chanoine). It was only in 1922, after the severe drought and famine of 1913–15 and the Tuareg uprising of 1916–17, that the French established a regular administration under civilian control. By then the power of the Tuareg had been broken.
As elsewhere, the peace in French West Africa (pax gallica) meant, among other things, the rapid spread of Islam, a steep demographic increase, and, although exclusively among the Hausa, the extension of cash crop cultivation. The Songhai-Zarma, on the other hand, responded to the French tax demands by engaging themselves as seasonal labourers in the coastal regions.
Through the reforms of 1946, France’s African subjects were in theory granted full citizenship. Thus Niger, along with the other colonies (renamed “overseas territories”) in Africa, was represented in the French parliament. Consultative-legislative assemblies were also set up locally. These reforms secured the ascent of a tiny new elite, the so-called évolués—i.e., those who had been trained in French schools. Many were descendants of formerly enslaved peoples, and most were Songhai-Zarma. Indeed, the people of the west had proved to be far more open to European influence than, for instance, the Hausa.
At least until 1954–55 the French administration (headed for 12 years by Gov. Jean Toby) remained firmly in control of the political situation. The first local executive was established in 1957. Its head, the left-wing trade unionist Djibo Bakary, advocated a no vote in the referendum of 1958, but 72 percent of the votes cast were in favour of a continued link with France. Nevertheless, under Bakary’s successor, his cousin and fellow Songhai-Zarma Hamani Diori, independence was proclaimed on August 3, 1960.
HISTORY OF THE INDEPENDENCE AND CONFLICTS IN NIGER
until he was toppled in a coup in 1974. There followed a military dictatorship headed first by Seyni Kountché (until his death in 1987) and then by Ali Seibou. Mahamane Ousmane of the Social Democratic Convention became president in the country’s first multiparty presidential elections in 1993. Meanwhile, a Tuareg rebellion that had begun in the northern part of the country in the early 1990s gained momentum until a cease-fire agreement in 1995 ended much of the fighting. Ousmane was ousted in 1996 during a military coup led by Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara. After a brief period of military rule, Maïnassara was elected president in elections marred by anomalies. Maïnassara’s administration was not well received, and in 1999 he was assassinated during a coup that was followed by a nine-month transitional government led by Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké and the National Reconciliation Council (Conseil de Reconciliation Nationale; CRN).
Later that year a new constitution was promulgated, and elections were held, leading to the subsequent return to democratic government under Pres. Mamadou Tandja of the National Movement for a Developing Society–Nassara (Mouvement National pour une Société de Développement–Nassara; MNSD).
At the beginning of the 21st century, increasing demand for the adoption of Islamic sharia law was the root of much conflict between Islamic activists and Nigeriens who were not in favour of the strict religious code. Niger struggled to maintain its fragile peace as well as to improve its dismal economic situation. Tandja’s leadership was widely credited with bringing political stability to Niger, and he was reelected in 2004.
The issue of slavery—still prevalent in Niger and other West African countries despite the fact that it is illegal—was brought to the forefront in 2008 when the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Court of Justice found the Nigerien government guilty of failing to protect a woman from slavery by not enforcing the country’s antislavery laws. Activists hailed the verdict as a historic human rights victory and hoped that the ruling would encourage the enforcement of antislavery laws not only in Niger but also in other West African countries bound by the ECOWAS ruling.
Constitutional Crisis (2009)
Under the two-term limit prescribed in the constitution, Tandja was scheduled to step down from office in December 2009. However, in the period leading up to the 2009 presidential election, the issue of a third term for Tandja was a source of contention between the president and the other branches of government. Tandja’s goal was to extend his rule for another three years, during which time a new constitution would be drafted that would move the country from a semi-presidential republic to a full presidential republic; he also cited the need for his continued leadership because of various economic development projects that were not yet complete. To extend his rule, Tandja requested that a referendum be held to change the constitution to allow for the three-year extension of his term, which the National Assembly refused to approve. He then took his request for the referendum to the country’s Constitutional Court, but on May 26 the court issued a nonbinding ruling that the referendum would be unconstitutional without the approval of the National Assembly; later that day Tandja dissolved the legislative body. In early June Tandja created a committee to draft a new constitution, which would provide for the three-year extension of his rule and would remove presidential term limits. On June 5 a presidential decree called for a referendum on this new constitution to be held on August 4.
Tandja’s actions elicited widespread discontent in the country as well as in the international community. Strikes and demonstrations were held to protest against the upcoming referendum. A coalition of many political parties and civil groups, calling themselves the Front for Defence of Democracy (FDD), challenged the presidential decree before the Constitutional Court, and the resulting court ruling on June 12 annulled the presidential decree, declaring that the referendum could not be held without the approval of the now-dissolved National Assembly; this ruling, unlike the court’s previous one, was legally binding. Tandja requested that the Constitutional Court rescind its ruling, but it was upheld by the court on June 26. Tandja responded later that day by announcing that he had assumed emergency powers and declaring his intent to rule by decree. Three days later he dissolved the Constitutional Court.
Tandja was not swayed by the increasing criticism of his actions, the accusations that he was circumventing the democratic process, or the pressure from international donors (some of whom threatened to withhold economic aid unless the democratic process was restored). The referendum was held as scheduled on August 4, although opposition leaders urged voters to boycott it. Official results indicated that more than 92 percent of the voters approved the referendum, and Tandja would thus be able to remain in power for an additional three years after the scheduled end of his term in December 2009.
On October 20 an election was held to replace the National Assembly that Tandja had dissolved in May. The election was boycotted by the opposition and was the target of international criticism. In the days prior, ECOWAS exhorted Tandja to postpone the election until talks could be held with the opposition; when its call went unheeded and the election took place as scheduled, ECOWAS suspended Niger’s membership in the organization. Election results were announced several days later and indicated that Tandja’s party, the MNSD, won a majority of the seats.
Military coup and return to civilian rule
Despite the apparent referendum and election victories, Tandja and his actions remained unpopular with many, and on February 18, 2010, he was deposed in a coup. Although reports on the incident were initially varied and conflicting, it was eventually announced that Tandja and other members of his government had been seized by soldiers and were being detained. Later that evening the coup participants announced the formation of a military junta, the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, and said that they had suspended the country’s constitution, dissolved all state institutions, and intended to restore democracy. On February 23 the junta named former cabinet minister Mahamadou Danda as prime minister, and a 20-member transition government was named on March 1. A new constitution, which curbed the presidential powers that Tandja had introduced in 2009, was approved by voters in October 2010.
The junta held presidential and legislative elections on January 31, 2011. The Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism–Tarayya (Parti Nigérien pour la Démocratie et le Socialisme–Tarayya; PNDS), an established opposition party, won the greatest representation in the National Assembly by a single party with 39 seats; it was followed by the MNSD with 26 seats. No one presidential candidate received an outright majority, and a runoff election was scheduled for March 12 with the two front-runners—Mahamadou Issoufou, a longtime opposition leader and head of the PNDS, who received 36 percent of the vote, and Seyni Oumarou, a MNSD leader and former prime minister, who received 23 percent of the vote. Issoufou was victorious in the runoff election, capturing about 58 percent of the vote. His inauguration on April 7, 2011, returned the country to civilian rule. The peaceful transition to democracy was followed by a resumption of foreign aid, which had been frozen after the coup.
Various Islamic militant groups had become more active in the region after Issoufou took office, and attacks by those groups within Niger became a growing concern. Although there were isolated incidents involving al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghrib and smaller groups, most notable was the threat from Boko Haram, which was based in neighbouring Nigeria and had terrorized that country for years before launching attacks in nearby countries. In 2015 it launched an attack in southern Niger. Niger joined with other countries in the region to combat the group and soon saw progress on that front. Niger also strove to accommodate tens of thousands of refugees who had fled from Boko Haram in northern Nigeria and settled in southern Niger.
Meanwhile, a large demonstration was held in Niamey in December 2013 by Nigeriens who were angry that there had not been noticeable progress with improving the country’s standards of living under Issoufou; it was the first such display of discontent since he had taken office. Some also protested media censorship and alleged corruption in government. With prominent opposition leaders Oumarou and former prime minister Hama Amadou commenting on the public’s grievances, the demonstration against Issoufou provided a glimpse of the nature of the challenge he would likely face in the next presidential election.
In December 2015 Issoufou claimed that the government had foiled a coup, with several military officers being arrested. Some opposition leaders, however, questioned the claims and accused Issoufou of trying to create drama ahead of the February 2016 presidential and legislative elections. Issoufou was once again the flag bearer of the PNDS and faced 14 challengers for the presidency, the most notable of whom were Amadou of the Nigerien Democratic Movement for an African Federation (Mouvement Démocratique Nigérien pour une Fédération Africaine; MODEN-FA Lumana Africa), Oumarou of the MNSD, and former president Ousmane of the Nigerien Movement for Democratic Renewal (Mouvement Nigérien pour le Renouveau Démocratique; MNRD). Amadou had the distinction of campaigning from his prison cell; he was jailed in November 2015 after being charged with involvement in a baby-trafficking ring, which he denied. Although a court of appeals would not grant him release from prison on bail, the country’s Constitutional Court did clear the way for him to run for president.
The election was held on February 21, 2016. Issoufou garnered the most votes—slightly more than 48 percent. Since he did not win more than 50 percent, he and his nearest challenger, Amadou, who won about 17 percent, were scheduled to face off in the second round of elections, due to be held in March. The PNDS wound up with more legislative seats than any other party but did not have enough seats to reach a majority in the National Assembly. Before the runoff was held, the Coalition for an Alternative (COPA)—the opposition coalition to which Amadou’s party belonged—announced that it would boycott the election, alleging that there were irregularities with the electoral process. Also prior to the election, Amadou was flown abroad for medical treatment. Unsurprisingly, Issoufou easily won reelection on March 20, taking 92.5 percent of the vote.
The country continued to experience attacks from Islamic militant groups and in 2017 joined several other countries in the region to form the G5 Sahel Joint Force to counter militant threats and improve the security of the countries’ borders. Parts of Niger’s border, however, still remained insecure in the following years, particularly its boundaries with Mali in the west and Nigeria in the south, as the population in those areas experienced deadly attacks from the various Islamic militant groups. Even against the backdrop of ongoing security challenges, some economic progress was made: The country’s gross domestic product showed positive growth for much of Issoufou’s time in office, and the percentage of Nigeriens living below the poverty line dropped from about 50 percent in 2011 to about 41 percent in 2019. Beginning in 2020, however, the COVID-19 global pandemic negatively affected the economy.
Niger’s next elections were held on December 27, 2020. With Issoufou stepping down after serving the constitutionally mandated limit of two terms, 30 candidates vied to be his successor. Mohamed Bazoum of Issoufou’s PNDS and Mahamane Ousmane received the most votes—about 39 percent and 17 percent, respectively—but as no one received more than 50 percent, they advanced to a runoff, held on February 21, 2021. Bazoum was announced the winner, with more than 55 percent. His victory was confirmed by the Constitutional Court in March.
On March 31—just days before Bazoum was scheduled to be inaugurated—the government reported that there had been an attempted coup that was quickly put down. It did not affect the planned transfer of power: On April 2 Issoufou stepped down, and Bazoum was sworn in as president, marking the first time in the country’s history that power was transferred from one democratically elected leader to another.
Some two years after Bazoum was inaugurated, he was deposed in a military coup that began on July 26, 2023, when he was detained by members of his presidential guard. Military leaders later dissolved the government and suspended the constitution. On July 28, Gen. Abdourahmane Tchiani, who had been the head of Bazoum’s presidential guard, was named the president of the military junta that would be leading the country.
